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GLOSSARY

 

Allusion - is an indirect reference, by word or phrase, to a historical, literary, mythological, biblical fact or to a fact of everyday life made in the course of speaking or writing.

Anaphora - repetition of a word (or phrase) at the beginning of two or more consecutive sentences, clauses or phrases.

Antonomasia — metaphorical antonomasia is the use of the name of a historical, literary, mythological or biblical personage applied to a person whose characteristic features resemble those of the well-known original. Thus a ladies' man deserves the name of Don Juan. Antonomasia is always trite when its contextual meaning is logical, because to be employed as a common the proper name must have fixed logical associations between the name itself and the qualities of its bearer which may occur only as a result of long and frequent usage.

Asyndeton - is the connection between parts of a sentence or between sentences without any formal sign. Asyndeton becomes a stylistic device if there is a deliberate omission of the connective where it is generally expected to be according to the norms of the literary language.

Barbarisms— words of foreign origin which have not entirely been assimilated into the English language. They bear the appearance of a borrowing and are felt as something alien to the native tongue.

Chiasmus — is also called reversed parallelism, for into its patterns two sentences are included, of which the second necessarily repeats the structure of the first, only in reversed manner.

Climax - parallelism consisting of three or more steps, presenting a row of relative (or contextual relative) synonyms placed in the ascending validity of their denotational or connotational meanings.

Dialectal words - are those which in the process of integration of the English national language remained beyond its literary boundaries, and their use in generally confined to a definite locality.

Epiphora - repetition of a word (or phrase) at the end of consecutive sentences, clauses or phrases.

Ellipsis- omission of one of the main members of a sentence. Elliptical are those sentences in which one or both principal parts are felt as missing since, theoretically, they could be restored. Elliptical sentences are typical, first and foremost, of oral communication, especially of colloquial speech.

Epithet- is a stylistic device based on the interplay of emotive and logical meaning in an attributive word, phrase or even sentence used to characterize an object and pointing out to the reader, and frequently imposing on him, some of the properties or features of the object with the aim of giving an individual perception and evaluation of these features or properties. The epithet is markedly subjective and evaluative. The logical attribute is purely objective, non-evaluating. It is descriptive and indicates an inherent or prominent feature of the thing or phenomenon in question. E g. The girl gave him a lipsticky smile (J. D. Salinger). Semantic classification of epithets allows to differentiate among them metaphorical epithets, which are based on metaphors ('the iron hate') and transferred ones, which transfer the quality of the object upon its nearest neighbor thus characterizing both of them.

Expressive means - expressive means of a language are those phonetic, morphological, word-building, lexical, phraseological and syntactical forms which exist in language-as-a-system for the purpose of logical and/or emotional intensification of the utterance.

Euphemism— is a word or phrase used to replace an unpleasant word or expression by a conventionally more acceptable one.

Functional style - a system of interrelated language means, which serves a definite aim in communication and is used in a definite sphere of communication of different people and fulfilled a definite function: aesthetico-cognitive, informative, convincing, progressing of ideas, reaching agreement, regulating, coordinating relations between people and states.

Hyperbole - is the use of a word, word-group or a sentence which exaggerates the real degree of a quantity of the thing spoken about. It is a distortion of reality for the purpose of visualization or strengthening the emotional effect. It is also an important expressive literary device, often employed for humoristic purposes. It's deliberate exaggeration of some quantity, quality, size, etc. E. g. : "One after another those people lay down on the grass to laugh — and two of them died" (M. Twain).

Inversion- is the displacement of the predicate or the displacement of the secondary members of the sentence and their shift into the opening position of the sentence.

Irony - is a stylistic device based on the simultaneous realization of two logical meaning - dictionary and contextual, but the two meanings stand in opposition to each other. Irony must not be confused with humor, although they have much in common. Humour always causes laughter. Irony expresses a feeling of irritation, displeasure, pity or regret.

Jargon - is a recognized term for a group of words that exists in almost every language and whose aim is to preserve secrecy within one or another social group. Jargonisms are generally old words with entirely new meanings imposed on them.

Litotes- is a specific variety of understatement consisting in expressing the lessened degree of quantity of a thing by means of negation of the antonym. The negation of the antonym expresses the positive idea but in a somewhat lessened degree. E. g. "not bad" in the meaning of 'good'.

Logical meaning— is the exact naming of a feature of an idea, phenomenon or object, the name by which we recognize the whole of the concept. This meaning is also synonymously called referential meaning or direct meaning.

Metaphor - is a transfer of the name of an object to another object on the basis of similarity, likeness, affinity of the two objects. At the same time there is no real connection between them, as in the case with metonymy. The stylistic function of a metaphor is not a mere nomination of the thing in question but rather its expressive characterization. E. g. 'The machine sitting at the desk was no longer a man; it was a busy New York broker ...' (O. Henry). The clock had struck, time was bleeding away (A. Huxley).

Metonymy - is applying the name of an abject to another object in some way connected with the first. The metonymic connections between the two objects are manifold: a) source of action instead of the action; b) effect instead of the cause; c) characteristic features instead of the object itself: 'He was followed by heavy boots'; d) symbol instead of the object symbolized: 'crown' for 'king'.

Neologism — a new word or a new meaning for an established word.

Neutral words- words, which form the bulk of the English vocabulary, are used in both literary and colloquial language. Neutral words are the main source of synonymy and polysemy. It is the neutral stock of words that is so prolific in the production of new meanings. Common neutral words are chiefly used in writing and in polished speech.

Nonce-word - a word coined to suit one particular occasion. Nonce-words remain on the outskirts of the literary language. They are created to designate some significant subjective idea or evaluation of a thing or phenomenon and generally become moribund.

Onomatopoeia - a combination of speech-sounds which aims at imitating sounds produced in nature. Combinations of speech sounds of this type will inevitably be associated with whatever produces the natural sound.

Oxymoron - is a combination of two words (mostly an adjective and a noun or an adverb with an adjective) in which the meanings of the two clash, being opposite in sense. It joins two antonymous words into one syntagm, most frequently attributive ("adoring hatred") or adverbial ("shouted silently"), less frequently of other patterns. Trite oxymorons ("awfully nice") have lost their semantic discrepancy and are used in oral speech and fiction dialogue as indicators of roused emotions.

Periphrasis - a device which denotes the use of a longer phrasing in place of a possible shorter and plainer form of expression. It is a description of an object instead of its name.

Personification - is a particular case of metaphor. It consists in attributing life and mind to inanimate things. Besides the actual objects of Nature abstractions of mind, such as life, death, truth, wisdom, love, evil, hope, etc. are frequently personified.

Thus personification is ascribing human properties to lifeless objects. In classical poetry of the 17th century personification was a tribute to mythological tradition and to the laws of ancient rhetoric. In poetry and fiction of the last centuries personification was used to impart the dynamic force to the description or to reproduce the particular mood by which the events described are coloured.

Personification is an important device used to depict the perception of the outer world by the lyrical hero.

 

Polysyndeton- is the stylistic device of connecting sentences, or phrases, or syntagms. or words by using connectives (mostly conjunctions and prepositions) before each component part. The repetition of "and", mainly crates the atmosphere of bustling activity, the repetition of "or" serves to stress equal importance of enumerated factors.

Professionalisms - words used in a definite trade, profession or calling by people connected by common interests both at work and at home. They commonly designate some working process or implement labour. Professionalisma are correlated to terms.

Pun - the role of the context is similar to that of zeugma, while the structure is changed, for the central word is repeated. E. g. She always glances up, and glances down, and doesn 7 know where to look, but looks all the prettier (Ch. Dickens).

Represented speech - representation of the actual utterance by a second person, usually the author, as if it had been spoken, whereas it has not really been spoken but is only represented in the author's words.

Rhetorical question - is a special syntactical stylistic device the essence of which consists in reshaping the grammatical meaning of the interrogative sentence. The question is no longer a question but a statement expressed in the form of an interrogative sentence.

Stylistics - a separate branch of linguistics studying the expressive possibilities of the language. Its final aim is to study the language behavior (selection and combination of the language means). It covers such factors as situation, aim, sphere of communication, pragmatic effect, emotiveness and expressiveness.

Stylistic device - is a conscious and intentional intensification of some typical structural and/or semantic property of a language unit (neutral or expressive) promoted to a generalized status and thus becoming a general model.

Synecdoche - is a variety of metonymy. It consists in using the name of apart to denote the whole or vice versa. E.g. ‘To me a comrade with a wolf and owl... '. In this example 'wolf and 'owl ' stand for wild beasts In general.

Syntactical stylistic devices- devices which deal with the syntactical arrangement of the utterance which creates the emphasis of the latter irrespective of the lexical meaning of the employed units

Understatement - consists in lessening,, reducing the real quantity of the object of speech. The hearer is expected to understand the intentional discrepancy between what the speaker says about the object and what he really thinks about it. E. g. "I was half afraid you had forgotten me "

Word - a unit of language functioning within Hie sentence or within a part of it which by its sound or graphical form expresses a concrete or abstract notion or a grammatical notion through one of its meanings and which is capable of enriching its semantic structure by acquiring new meanings and losing old ones

Zeugma - the context allows to realize two meanings of the same polysemantic word (or a pair of homonyms) without repetition of the word itself. E. g. There comes a period in every man's life, but she s just a semicolon in his (S. Evans)

 




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