The structure of epithets.

Epithets are used singly, in pairs, in chains, in two-step structure and in inverted constructions, also as phrase attributes.

Pairs are represented by two epithets joined by a conjunction or asyndetically as in “wonderful and incomparable beauty” or “a tired old town”.

Chains (also called strings) of epithets present a group of homogeneous attributes.

e.g. She was hopefully, sadly, vaguely, madly longing for something better. (Dreiser)

Two-step epithets are so called because the process of qualifying seemingly passes two stages: the qualification of the object and the qualification of the qualification it self as in “unnaturally mild day”.

Phrase-epithets always produce an original expression. Their originality proceeds from rare repetitions.

e.g. “a-move-if-you-dare expression”

e.g. There’s something about evening … that makes a person feel drowsy and peaceful. Sort of end-of-a-perfect-day feeling. (P.G. Wodehouse)

Note:Do not regard all attributes as epithets. Such attributes as “a round table” reflect objective features and not their subjective qualification which is the leading feature of an epithet. Those adjectives (adverbs, nouns) which offer objective representation of the features and qualities of an object form the group of logical attributes.

• Hyperbole – a deliberate overstatement or exaggeration of a feature essential to the object or phenomenon. Hyperbole shows the overflow of emotions in the speaker. The feelings and emotions of the speaker are so ruffled that he resorts in his speech to intensifying the quantitative or qualitative aspect of the mentioned object. Hyperbole is used to create humorous, satirical, etc. effect and so to reveal the writer’s/character’s attitude to the described.

e.g. I haven’t seen for ages!

e.g. Here’s the smell of the blood still: all the perfumes of Arabia will not sweeten this little hand. (Shakespeare, Macbeth)

There is one more SD with the same inner mechanism-understatement – hyperbole enlarges, while understatement deliberately diminishes the described object, phenomenon, etc. Understatement is the logical and psychological opposite of hyperbole. It is lessening, reducing, weakening of the real characteristics of the objects. It is an expression of an idea in an excessively restrained language. Understatement serves to underline the insignificance of what we speak about.

e.g. “The little woman, for she was of pocket size, crossed her hands solemnly on her middle.” (Galsworthy)

• Oxymoron presents a combination of two contrasting ideas. Oxymoron is a structure in which one of its components discloses some objectively existing feature or quality, while the other one offers a purely subjective individual perception of the object – thus oxymoron is a combination of two semantically contradictory notions.

With the help of oxymoron the speaker emphasizes the complex nature of the thing spoken about, thus he reveals his two-fold attitude towards the object.

e.g. “It was you, who made a liar”, she cried silently.

English colloquial speech abounds in oxymoron of the type:

awfully nice, pretty bad, etc. where the first component has lost its independent meaning and become a synonym to “very”.

D. Stylistic Devices which Give Additional Characteristics to the Objects Described. Simile. Periphrasis.

Simile is an imaginative comparison of two unlike objects belonging to two different classes. A structure of three components is presented in a stylistic device extremely popular at all times – simile. The one which is compared is called the tenor, the one with which it is compared, is called the vehicle. The tenor and the vehicle are connected by one of the following link words: “like”, “as”, “as though”, “as like”, “such as”, “as … as”, etc.

The tenor and the vehicle may be expressed in a brief “nucleus” manner, as in “she like a rose”, or may be extended. This case of sustained expression of likeness is known as epic, or Homerian simile.

The feature which is called foundation of a simile, may be explicitly mentioned as in:

e.g. “He stood immovable like a rock.

When the foundation is not explicitly named the simile is considered to be richer in possible associations. So “the rose” allows to simultaneously foreground such features as “fresh, beautiful, fragrant, attractive”, etc.

Similes in which the link between the tenor and the vehicle is expressed by notional verbs such as “to resemble”, “to seem”, “to remember”, “to recollect”, etc. are called disguised or hidden, because the realization of the comparison is somewhat suspended.

e.g. He reminded James of a hungry cat.

Simile usually serves as a means to clearer meaning; the writer makes his description concrete, familiar, picturesque. It help the author to reveal certain feeling of his own.

• Periphrasis is a word combination which is used instead of the word designating an object; it is a roundabout form of expression instead of a simple one. Periphrasis is a description of what could be named directly; it is naming the characteristic features of the object instead of naming the object itself.

The main function of periphrasis is to convey a purely individual perception of the described object. Sometimes the speaker gives a mild, delicate expression instead of one which seems to be rude, or unpleasant, or impolite, etc. (euphemistic periphrasis)

e.g. “I expect you’d like a wash,” Mrs Thomson said. “The bathroom’s to the right, and the usual offices next to it.”

Periphrasis can be logical when it is based on logical notions.

e.g. Mr Snodgrass bore under his arm the instruments of destruction. (Dickens)

Figurative periphrasis may be based on metaphor or metonymy.

e.g. Back foolish tears, back to your native spring! (Shakespeare)

Periphrasis can be trite and original.

e.g. the better sex, the man in the street

E. The use of phraseological units and allusions.

Allusion is reference to well-known historical literary or mythological sources. The stylistic effect of an allusion can be achieved only if the facts and personages alluded to are well-known to the reader.

e.g. He walked as slowly as the Ghost in “Hamlet” and more slowly.

Allusion hinting at well known situations help the writer to be more explicit and clear without expanding on the subject too much.

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