General classification of expressive means and stylistic devices

1. Expressive means and stylistic devices are classified according to the principles of the levels of the language. We distinguish among phonetic, lexical, syntactical devices and expressive means. Lexical stylistic devices and expressive means are classified according to three principles:

· interplay of different types of lexical meaning.

Here we have metaphor, metonymy, oxymoron, irony, epithet, zeugma, pun; words in context may acquire additional lexical meanings, not fixed in dictionaries <contextual meaning>. This meaning sometimes deviate from the dictionary meaning to such a degree, that the new meaning becomes the opposite of the primary meaning. The transferred meaning will always depend on the dictionary/logical meaning to a greater or lesser degree. It is the correlation between the two types of lexical meaning: dictionary and contextual. In the context the word realizes one meaning. If two meanings are realized, it will make the understanding difficult. When a word realizes the primary logical and derivative meaning we register a stylistic device.

· interplay between the primary dictionary and contextual meanings

This process constitutes the: metaphor, based on the principle of identification of two objects; metonymy, based on the substitution of one object for another; irony, which is a contrary concept.

The interplay of primary and derivative logical meaning <the meaning, which can be registered as a secondary one and which is derived from the primary meaning by means of metaphor and metonymy>. It consists of the following: zeugma, which is the use of the word in the same grammatical but different semantic relations to the two adjusted words; pun is a stylistic device based on the interaction of two well-known meanings of a word or phrase. The only reliable distinguishing feature between zeugma and pun is a structural one. Zeugma is a realization of two meanings wth a help of a verb, which is made to refer to different subjects r objects, while pun is more independent and can be realized within the limits of the context, paragraph, text or even the whole novel.

· the interaction of logical <the precise naming of a feature, idea or phenomenon> and emotive <has reference to the feelings and emotions of the speaker towards the subject>.

Here we have interjections, exclamatory words, which are words we use when we expressour feelings strongly, which may be said to exist in a language as conventional symbols of human emotions. Also epithet.

Epithet is a stylistic device used to characterize an object, pointing out some of the properties or features of the object with the aim of giving an individual p;erception and evaluation of these features.

Oxumoron is a combination of two words in which the meanings of the two clash, being opposite in sense.

Intencification of certain features of the object, one of the qualities of the object in question is made to some degree essential (simile, hyperbole, periphrasis, euphemism).

Simile is based on the characterisation of one , object by bringing it into contact with another object belonging to an entirely different class of things.

Periphrasis has a form of a free word combination or a sentence which substitutes a certain notion or thing.

Euphemism is a word or phrase used to replace an unpleasant word or expression by a conventionally more acceptable one.

Hyperbole is based on a deliberate exaggeration of a feature, essential to the object or phenomenon.

The use of set expressions:

Cliche is a commonly used expression that has become hackneyed.

Proverbs and sayings are facts of language, which are collected in dictionaries and have typical features such as rhythm, rhyme, alliteration.

Irony is a stylistic device, based on the simultaneous realization of the two logical meanings (dictionary and contextual), but both stay in opposition to each other; thus, the word which has a positive evaluation realizes negative evaluation in the context. [It must be delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in one's pocket].

The word containing irony is marked by intonation. Irony can be realized by means of separate words, usually adjectives, adverbs or word combination or even by whole sentences. Irony can hardly be trite. Naturally, it is always original. It is used in humorous, satirical, comic prose. Irony is a device, usually used in the belles-lettres, publicistic and newspaper style. Irony mustn't be confused with humour. Irony produces a satirical effect, which is always negative, and it is the function of the text, while humour always causes laughter and produces a positive evaluaton of the object described.

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