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Юриспунденкция

The listening Process.

Students do not have an innate understanding of what effective listeners do; therefore, it is the responsibility of teachers to share that knowledge with them. Perhaps the most valuable way to teach listening skills is for teachers to model them themselves, creating an environment, which encourages listening. Teachers can create such an environment by positive interaction, actively listening to all students and responding in an open and appropriate manner. Teachers should avoid responding either condescendingly or sarcastically. As much as possible, they should minimize distractions and interruptions.

It is important for the teacher to provide numerous opportunities for students to practice listening skills and to become actively engaged in the listening process. The three phases of the listening process are: pre- listening, during listening, and after listening.

ü Pre- listening

During the pre- listening phase, teachers need to recognize that all students bring different backgrounds to the listening experience. Beliefs, attitudes, and biases of the listeners will affect the understanding of the message. In addition to being aware of these factors, teachers should show students how their backgrounds affect the messages they receive.

Before listening, students need assistance to activate what they already know about the ideas they are going to hear. Simply being told the topic is not enough. Pre- listening activities are required to establish what is already known about the topic, to build necessary background, and to set purpose(s) for listening.

... Act of listening requires not just hearing but also thinking, as well as a good deal of interest and information that both speaker and listener must have in common. Speaking and listening entail ... three components: the speaker, the listener, and the meaning to be shared; speaker, listener, and meaning form a unique triangle.
(King, 1984, p. 177)

There are several strategies that students and their teachers can use to prepare for a listening experience. They can:

1. Activate Existing Knowledge: Students should be encouraged to ask the question: What do I already know about this topic? From this teachers and students can determine what information they need in order to get the most from the message. Students can brainstorm, discuss, read, view films or photos, and write and share journal entries.

2. Build Prior Knowledge: Teachers can provide the appropriate background information including information about the speaker, topic of the presentation, purpose of the presentation, and the concepts and vocabulary that are likely to be embedded in the presentation. Teachers may rely upon the oral interpretation to convey the meanings of unfamiliar words, leaving the discussion of these words until after the presentation. At this stage, teachers need to point out the role that oral punctuation, body language, and tone play in an oral presentation.

3. Review Standards for listening: Teachers should stress the importance of the audience's role in a listening situation. There is an interactive relationship between audience and speaker, each affecting the other. Teachers can outline the following considerations to students:

o Students have to be physically prepared for listening. They need to see and hear the speaker. If notes are to be taken, they should have paper and pencil at hand.

o Students need to be attentive. In many cultures, though not all, it is expected that the listener look directly at the speaker and indicate attention and interest by body language. The listener should never talk when a speaker is talking. Listeners should put distractions and problems aside.

o "Listen to others as you would have them listen to you."

4. Establish Purpose: Teachers should encourage students to ask: "Why am I listening?" "What is my purpose?" Students should be encouraged to articulate their purpose.

o Am I listening to understand? Students should approach the speech with an open mind. If they have strong personal opinions, they should be encouraged to recognise their own biases.

o Am I listening to remember? Students should look for the main ideas and how the speech is organised. They can fill in the secondary details later.

o Am I listening to evaluate? Students should ask themselves if the speaker is qualified and if the message is legitimate. They should be alert to errors in the speaker's thinking processes, particularly bias, sweeping generalisations, propaganda devices, and charged words that may attempt to sway by prejudice or deceit rather than fact.

o Am I listening to be entertained? Students should listen for those elements that make for an enjoyable experience (e.g., emotive language, imagery, mood, humour, presentation skills).

o Am I listening to support? Students should listen closely to determine how other individuals are feeling and respond appropriately (e.g., clarify, paraphrase, sympathise, encourage).

Before a speaker's presentation, teachers also can have students formulate questions that they predict will be answered during the presentation. If the questions are not answered, students may pose the questions to the speaker. As well, students should be encouraged to jot down questions during listening.

5. Use a listening Guide: A guide may provide an overview of the presentation, its main ideas, questions to be answered while listening, a summary of the presentation, or an outline. For example, students could use a guide such as the following during a presentation in class.

ü During listening

Students need to understand the implications of rate in the listening process. Nichols (1948) found that people listen and think at four times the normal conversation rate. Students have to be encouraged to use the "rate gap" to actively process the message. In order to use that extra time wisely, there are several things students can be encouraged to do:

They can run a mental commentary on it; they can doubt it, talk back to it, or extend it. They can rehearse it in order to remember it; that is, they repeat interesting points back to themselves. They can formulate questions to ask the speaker ... jot down key words or key phrases ... They can wonder if what they are listening to is true, or what motives the speaker has in saying it, or whether the speaker is revealing personal feelings rather than objective assessments.
(Temple and Gillet, 1989, p. 55)

This kind of mental activity is what effective listeners do during listening.

Effective listeners:

· Connect: make connections with people, places, situations, and ideas they know

· Find meaning: determine what the speaker is saying about people, places, and ideas

· Question: pay attention to those words and ideas that are unclear

· Make and confirm predictions: try to determine what will be said next

· Make inferences: determine speaker's intent by "listening between the lines"; infer what the speaker does not actually say

· Reflect and evaluate: respond to what has been heard and pass judgement.

Several strategies such as the following have been developed to help teachers guide students through the listening process.

Teachers can use the Directed- listening Thinking Activity (Stauffer, 1980). A description of this activity follows.

Choose a story with cear episodes and action. Plan your stops just before important events. Two to four stops is plenty.

· At each stop, elicit summaries of what happened so far, and predictions of "what might happen next".

· Accept all predictions as equally probable.

· Ask the students to explain why they made particular predictions and to use previous story information for justification.

· Avoid "right" or "wrong"; use terms like "might happen", "possible", or "likely".

· After reading a section, review previous predictions and let the students change their ideas.

· Focus on predictions, not on who offered them.

· Involve everyone by letting the students show hands or take sides with others on predictions.

· Keep up the pace! Do not let discussions drag; get back to the story quickly (Temple & Gillett, 1989, p. 101).

Most students need practice in making inferences while listening. A simple way to help students become aware that there is meaning between the lines is to read a passage from literature which describes a character's actions, appearance, or surroundings. From this information, students make inferences about the character's personality. Teachers should keep in mind that the purpose of an exercise such as this is not to elicit the exact answer, but to provide opportunities for students to make various inferences. Students also need to be aware of the inferences they can make from non-verbal cues. A speaker's tone and body language can convey a message as well.

Teachers can also encourage guided imagery when students are listening to presentations that have many visual images, details, or descriptive words. Students can form mental pictures to help them remember while listening.

Although listeners need not capture on paper everything they hear, there are times that students need to focus on the message and need to record certain words and phrases. Such note making ("listening with pen in hand") forces students to attend to the message. Devine (1982) suggests strategies such as the following:

· Give questions in advance and remind listeners to listen for possible answers.

· Provide a rough outline, map, chart, or graph for students to complete as they follow the lecture.

· Have students jot down "new-to-me" items (simple lists of facts or insights that the listener has not heard before).

· Use a formal note taking system (p. 48).

Transcribing or writing down live or recorded speech can sharpen students’ listening, spelling, and punctuation skills.

· Teacher selects an interesting piece of writing.

· The selection is read aloud to the class (and perhaps discussed).

· The teacher then dictates the passage slowly to the class. The students transcribe the form and conventions (i.e., spelling, punctuation, and capitalization) as accurately as possible.

· Students compare their transcription with distributed copies of the original.

This task is best used as a diagnostic or teaching aid.

Critical thinking plays a major role in effective listening. Listening in order to analyze and evaluate requires students to evaluate a speaker's arguments and the value of the ideas, appropriateness of the evidence, and the persuasive techniques employed. Effective listeners apply the principles of sound thinking and reasoning to the messages they hear at home, in school, in the workplace, or in the media.

Planning and structuring classroom activities to model and encourage students to listen critically is important. Students should learn to:

By understanding and practicing the principles of objective thinking, students can prepare themselves to listen effectively in most situations.

Listening affects our ability to make good decisions, our appreciation of the world around us, and our personal relationships. Effective communication begins with listening and with listeners carrying 80 percent of the responsibility in the interaction (Brownell, 1996, pp. 6-7).

Whether at home, in school, or in the workplace, effective is important for the development and maintenance of healthy relationships.

ü After listening

Students need to act upon what they have heard to clarify meaning and extend their thinking. Well-planned post- listening activities are just as important as those before and during. Some examples follow.

· To begin with, students can ask questions of themselves and the speaker to clarify their understanding and confirm their assumptions.

· Hook and Evans (1982) suggest that the post-mortem is a very useful device. Students should talk about what the speaker said, question statements of opinion, amplify certain remarks, and identify parallel incidents from life and literature.

· Students can summarize a speaker's presentation orally, in writing, or as an outline. In addition to the traditional outline format, students could use time lines, flow charts, ladders, circles, diagrams, webs, or maps.

· Students can review their notes and add information that they did not have an opportunity to record during the speech.

· Students can analyse and evaluate critically what they have heard.

· Students can be given opportunities to engage activities in that build on and develop concepts acquired during an oral presentation. These may include writing (e.g., response journal, learning log, or composition), reading (e.g., further research on a topic or a contradictory viewpoint), art or drama (e.g., designing a cover jacket after a book talk or developing a mock trial concerning the topic through drama in role).

ü Assessment Of Listening

Listening is one of the more difficult aspects of the language arts to assess. It cannot be easily observed and can be measured only through inference. However, there are both informal and formal strategies and instruments that teachers can use to help them in their assessments.

Example: Dear Mom and Dad

Level	Topic:	Type:	Speakers:	Time:
Upper intermediate	Narration (story)	Dialogue	One man	02.16

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