Phonology

Phonetics and phonology

FUNCTIONAL ASPECT OF SPEECH SOUNDS

PHONETICS VS PHONOLOGY

Контрольні запитання

Практичне застосування ліній зв’язку

Мережа з роздільним середовищем за наявності великої кількості вузлів працюватиме завжди повільніше, ніж аналогічна мережа з індивідуальними лініями зв'язку, оскільки пропускна здатність індивідуальної лінії зв'язку дістається одному комп'ютеру, а при її сумісному використанні - поділяється на всі комп'ютери мережі.

Часто з такою втратою продуктивності миряться заради збільшення економічної ефективності мережі. Не зважаючи на ці складнощі, в локальних мережах роздільні лінії зв'язку використовуються дуже часто. Цей підхід, зокрема, реалізовано в широко поширених класичних технологіях Ethernet і Token Ring.

На сьогоднішній день, спостерігається тенденція відмови від роздільних середовищ передачі даних.

1. Що називають топологією комп'ютерної мережі?

2. Які особливості притаманні для повноз’язної мережі?

3. Яким чином об’єднані комп’ютери в топології «загальна шина»?

4. Що є центральним елементом в топологіях «активна зірка» і «пасивна зірка»?

5. Яким чином забезпечується надійність передачі даних в топології «кільце»?

6. Які переваги надає застосування змішаних топологій?

7. Які чинники впливають на фізичну працездатність мережі?

8. З яких міркувань в мережах застосовують роздільні лінії зв’язку?

9. Яким чином організовують сумісне використання ліній зв'язку?

10. Який метод доступу до роздільного середовища застосовано в топології «загальна шина»?

Phonology is the study of language sounds. ^[1] Phonology is divided into two separate studies; Phonetics and Phonemics. Phonetics is what depicts the sounds we hear. It calls attention to the smallest details in language sounds. There are three kinds of phonetics; Acoustic phonetics, auditory phonetics, and articulatory phonetics. Acoustic phonetics deals with the physical properties of sound. What sounds exactly are coming from the person speaking. Auditory phonetics deals with how the sounds are perceived. Exactly what the person hearing the sounds is perceiving. Finally, articulatory phonetics studies how the speech sounds are produced. This is what describes the actual sounds in detail. It is also known as descriptive phonetics.^[2] Phonemics studies how the sounds are used. It analyzes the way sounds are arranged in languages and helps you to hear what sounds are important in a language.^[3] It helps one to understand the culture behind the language. The unit of analysis for phonemics is called phonemes. "A phoneme is a sound that functions to distinguish one word from another in a language,".^[4] For example, how we distinguish the English word tie from the word die. The sounds that differentiates two words are [t], and [d].^[4]

Phonology (from the Greek: φωνή, phōnē, "voice, sound" and λόγος, lógos, "word, speech, subject of discussion") is the systematic use of sound to encode meaning in any spoken human language, or the field of linguistics studying this use. Just as a language has syntax and vocabulary, it also has a phonology in the sense of a sound system. When describing the formal area of study, the term typically describes linguistic analysis either beneath the word (e.g., syllable, onset and rime, phoneme, articulatory gesture, articulatory feature, mora, etc.) or to units at all levels of language that are thought to structure sound for conveying linguistic meaning. It is viewed as the subfield of linguistics that deals with the sound systems of languages. Whereas phonetics is about the physical production, acoustic transmission and perception of the sounds of speech, phonology describes the way sounds function within a given language or across languages to encode meaning. The term 'phonology' was used in the linguistics of a greater part of the 20th century as a cover term uniting phonemics and phonetics. Current phonology can interface with disciplines such as psycholinguistics and speech perception, resulting in specific areas like articulatory or laboratory phonology.

An important part of traditional forms of phonology has been studying which sounds can be grouped into distinctive units within a language. For example, in English, the [p] sound in "pot" is described as including the articulatory feature of aspirated, while the word- and syllable-final [p] in "soup" is not aspirated (indeed, it might be realized as a glottal stop). However, English speakers intuitively treat both sounds as variations of the same phonological category; that is, the phoneme /p/. Traditionally, it would be argued that if a word-initial aspirated [p] were interchanged with the word-final unaspirated [p] in "soup", they would still be perceived by native speakers of English as 'the same' /p/. (However, speech perception findings now put this theory in doubt.) Although some sort of 'sameness' of these two sounds holds in English, it is not universal and may be absent in other languages. For example, in Thai and Quechua, the difference of aspiration or non-aspiration differentiates phonemes and coincides with lexical contrasts dependent on minimal differences.

In addition to the minimal units that can serve the purpose of differentiating meaning (the phonemes), phonology studies how sounds alternate, i.e. replace one another in different forms of the same morpheme (allomorphs), as well as, e.g., syllable structure, stress, accent, and intonation.

The principles of phonological theory have also been applied to the analysis of sign languages, even though the sub-lexical units are not instantiated as speech sounds. The principles of phonological analysis can be applied independently of modality because they are designed to serve as general analytical tools, not language-specific ones. On the other hand, it must be noted, it is difficult to analyze phonologically a language one does not speak, and most phonological analysis takes place with recourse to phonetic information.

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