Plurilingualism

Plurilingualism is another concept of the relationship between people and languages. Similarly to polylingualism it refuses the idea of languages as separate and separable linguistic entities. Like the term multilingualism, plurilingualism has been used for individual and societal phenomena as well, although it has a clear focus on the individual dimension of languages since it is sometimes even understood as individual (as opposed to societal) multilingualism.

The development of plurilingualism is interpreted in different ways:

· It may be interpreted as one of the terminological consequences of the European Union's enhanced emphasis on multilingual education (e.g. Jessner 2008).

· Others consider the use of plurilingualism as a terminological choice characteristic of Francophone research, whereas Anglophone researchers tend not to differentiate terminologically between societal and individual multilingualism (e.g. Kemp 2009, De Cillia 2008).

· Most frequently, plurilingualism has become associated with the Council of Europe's language policy, see chapter 1.3 of the Common European Framework of Reference (Council of Europe 2001). The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages is very clear about the integrative and intercultural nature of plurilingualism in conceiving of plurilingual competence as a complex competence which is fed by all linguistic knowledge as well as by the linguistic and cultural experiences of the individual.

· In this conceptualization, the components relating to the single languages are not to be seen as being stored separately, but rather as parts of the plurilingual and pluricultural competence. Despite the Council's focus on plurilingualism, there is no clear division between the EU using multilingualism (and hence suggesting an additive framework) and the Council of Europe's plurilingualism. To give an example, the term "multilingualism" may even imply that the conceptual basis of plurilingualism is at stake, which is the case in some of the European Union's language policy documents (e.g. COM 2003).

If one starts out from the conceptualization of plurilingualism mentioned above and goes beyond the terminological debate, one can follow that "plurilingual" which is frequently associated with "pluricultural" competence implies paradigmatic changes at various levels:

· A holistic, multiple, dynamic, and individual vision replaces a segmented vision of language skills.

· The focus is on disequilibrium and partial competence rather than on balance of skills.

· The importance of circulations, mediations and passages between languages and cultures are highlighted instead of separateness (see Coste & Moore 2009).

It seems that these changes are most evident in the domain of multilingual education and that in this domain a new theoretical frame is actually emerging which more or less explicitly integrates plurilingualism. To give an example, Garcia's typology of bilingual education opens up new perspectives on multilingual education in this sense: She assumes that monoglossic ideologies do not cover the actual linguistic complexity, which cannot be seen through a traditional "diglossic lens" (García 2009).

In her view heteroglossic ideologies differ from the monoglossic ones in so far as they start out from multilingualism and go beyond the conception of two separate autonomous languages that prevails in additive or subtractive bilingualism models (both pertaining to the monoglossic ideologies). Within the heteroglossic ideologies she develops the recursive and dynamic theoretical framework. The latter, which she explicitly relates to the Council of Europe's concept of plurilingualism, is seen as the most appropriate model for multilingual education. The link to polylingualism and translanguaging is more than obvious:

"If we focus then not on separate languages as we have done in the past, but on the bilingual or multilingual discourse practices that we need and that are readily observable in bilingual classrooms, we can see that bilingual arrangements that build on translanguaging, (...), is indeed the only way to build the plurilingual abilities that we will need in the future" (García 2009: 297).

Instruction:Explication of facts and details given in the text. Factual or detail questionsask about explicit facts and details given in the passage. To answer factual questions, you have to locate and identify the information that the question asks about. Negative questions ask you to determine which of the choices is not given in the passage. These questions contain the words NOT, EXCEPT, or LEAST. Scanning questions ask you to find where in the passage some particular information or transition is located. They are easy to identify: the answers are usually found in the line of the text. If you are not sure from your first reading where to look for specific answers, use the following scanningtechniques.

• Focus on one or two key words as you read the stem of each question. Lock these words in your mind.

• Scan the passage looking for the key words or their synonyms. Look only for these words. Do NOT try to read every word of the passage.

• It may help to focus your attention. Don't reread the passage completely—just look for key words.

• When you find the key words in the passage, carefully read the sentence in which they occur. You may have to read the sentence preceding or following that sentence as well.

• Compare the information you read with possible answer choices.

The order of facts or details in the text almost always follows the order in which ideas are presented in the passage. In other words, the opening information you need will usually come near the beginning of the passage; the next factual information will follow that, and so on. Knowing this should help you locate the information you need. Correct definitions of details are seldom the same, word for word, as information in the passage; they often contain synonyms and use different grammatical structures.

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Plurilingualism in Europe: uniting cultural diversity and reducing the dominance of English?

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Polylingualism	\|	Factual Questions

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