Exercise 2.

1. Now she understood his failure to add two and two and make the obvious four; it was _______ Simon doctoring the facts.

2. Any feeling of insecurity in the reader's mind concerning this dual interpretation of formula is not so much _______ the perversity of the author but is rather due to the dual role that the public at large expects him to play.

3. By the mid-1920s the universal result of the earlier shortage of equipment had become clear: 75 per cent of all cases of letting out land were _______ lack of adequate tools.

4. This may well have been _______ the satisfaction he had been deriving from the composition of East Coker.

5. As a port Manchester has less trade now ______ the use of larger ships and the change to trade eastwards with the EEC.

6. In 1972, _______ a technical error, MIKE OLDFIELD appeared on the NME cover six weeks in a row.

7. If, ______ unforeseen circumstances, you are unable to attend the perfor-mance booked, do let us know and we will do our best to resell your tickets.

8. But his persecutors were frustrated when they had to release him a week later, partly ______ a technical fault in the warrant for his arrest and partly _______ the influence of his friend, Sir M. Hale.

B:

1. Further changes _______ the war were introduced during May 1940: homework and Saturday morning school were cancelled, and Games were held on Friday afternoons.

2. By 15 September two Cornish reservoirs and one in Devon were also closed to the public ________ blue-green algae.

3. The above entertainment came off on Friday 15^th but _________ the inclemency of the weather the audience was very small.

4. ________ national budgetary complications arising from Czechoslovakia's split into two nations on 1 January, 1993, this long awaited tax law could be delayed by up to six months.

5. A big loss was suffered on the course in 1975 when 40 elm trees were felled at a cost of £1,400 ________ Dutch Elm Disease.

6. __________ the noise a drill makes, ear protection is necessary.

C:

1. At thirty-five, Leon Gusev had reached colonel's rank ________ his excellent work with agitators in the Baltic Republics.

2. James Howe attended the village school in Skirling but left still young and incompletely educated _________ his deafness.

3. At this period relations between Persia and Britain were worsening _________ Afghanistan.

4. Runnymede offered a most appropriate site for such a memorial ________ its historical associations and its closeness to London and Heathrow.

5. In certain quarters the members of the club were known as `the Black Shorts' ________ their surfing costumes.

D:

1. The former First Deputy Prime Minister claimed that he had not opposed Ceausescu ________ being dismissed.

2. Even now she’s frightened to be seen on television __________ reprisals.

3. Reserve officials have also been covering up the scale of the problem ________ being accused of failing in their duties.

4. The common mistake is that people are afraid to pull too hard ________ breaking something

5. They are heavily fortified __________ terrorist attack.

6. At this stage, more girls drop out ___________ retributions.

E:

1. It led to a dialogue with Montefiore, with my telling him about my friend who has had AIDS now for six years and who, _________ AZT, is still alive.

2. Most of it happened _________ tireless negotiations with opera houses, TV crews and recording componies in the west.

3. They discovered how useful honey was in treatment of wounds and it was _________ people’s participation that the best way of applying it to particular kinds of wounds were developed

4. The complex life of the wild gladiolus is a little nearer to being understood________ the efforts of Jon Stokes, a botanist.

5. Hundreds of children enjoyed a sunny day out by the sea yesterday, _________ the kindness of 300 drivers who gave their time to transport the youngsters.

6. All that activity helped the youngsters work up an appetite, which was satisfied __________food and sweets provided by McDonalds.

Exercise 4. BECAUSE OF vs. AS A RESULT OF. Underline the one that sounds more logically and grammarwise correct.

1. The home team scored in the last minute as a result of/because of an error by the opposing goalkeeper.

2. I was made redundant as a result of/because of company reorganisation.

3. Because of/As a result of the opposing team’s superior attacking skills, we worked out a clever defensive plan.

4. Sea-level may rise as a result of/because of global warming.

5. Governments may take measures to limit CO₂ emissions because of/as a result of the dangers of global warming.

6. I get depressed as a result of/because of all the unhappiness in the world.

7. We are getting a 10 per cent pay rise because of/as a result of the recent wage agreement.

8. As a result of/because of eating well, she soon regained her strength.

9. As a result of/because of the excellent food at the hotel she booked a holiday there for the following year.

10. Why did you decide to leave the company? Because of/As a result of new management policies which I totally disagreed with.

11. Joe met his wife as a result of/because of an advertisement he inserted in a newspaper.

Exercise 5. SINCE / BECAUSE / AS. Underline the best answers and explain your choice. Sometimes both forms are possible.

1. John, as/because you speak French, I wondered if I could ask you some words?

2. We have a surprise for you because/as you have helped us so often, and for so many years we’d like to give you a present.

3. Since/as everyone is here, we can begin the meeting.

4. Because/since we were young and inexperienced, we made a lot of mistakes.

5. Please allow Johnny to leave school fifteen minutes early, as/because he has a dentist’s appointment.

6. I will tell you why she lost her job! She was dismissed since/because she was lazy and inefficient!

7. ”Why do you love me?” – “I love you as/because you understand me.”

8. I failed in the exam precisely as/because I didn’t have time to study.

9. I asked the question “Who will pay?” merely as/because we have received no financial details at all.

10. Following our letter of the 16^th April, since/because we have not heard from you, we assume that you have no objections to the proposal that was made to you.

11. Some people believe that Mozart died because/since he was poisoned.

Exercise 6. THUS vs. AND THUS. Link the messages below so that it makes sense.

1. The government intends to reduce taxes / it wants to increase its popularity.

2. There had been riots in the streets / the army decided to take control.

3. The police fired tear gas / they managed to disperse the protesters.

4. The government has announced a programme of reform / it will improve social benefits for the poor.

5. The health minister claimed that great progress has been made / 240 new hospitals have been built.

6. The opposition parties voted against the proposal / they meant to prevent it from becoming law.

7. The new minister, Mrs. Durass, is energetic / she will probably adopt new policies.

8. Underground Railroad was one of the greatest forces which brought on the Civil War / it destroyed slavery.

9. The President is very unpopular / his resignation didn’t come as a surprise.

10. Our souls are immortal because they are not made of matter / they are indestructible.

Exercise 8. HENCE vs. CONSEQUENTLY. Rewrite the sentences so that they sound more formal.

1. Several teachers are ill, so the school will be closed until further notice.

2. The ship suffered damage in a storm, so it had to go into port for repairs.

3. There is no evidence of damage to the door, so the thieves must have entered the building through the window.

4. Over 90 per cent of out patients improved after taking the drug, so the drug can be regarded as an effective treatment for the disease.

5. The temperature in Saudi Arabia can reach 50 degrees Celsius, so a lot of business is done early in the day.

6. The soldiers in the Pacifican Army were poorly paid; so morale was extremely low.

7. Calcium hydroxide is an alkali, so it reacts with acids to form a salt plus water.

8. The bank refused to help the company, so it went bankrupt.

9. There is no defect in the fuel system of the car, so the fault appears to lie with the electrical system.

Exercise 9. Choose and underline the best answer in the sentences below.

1. Poachers shoot elephants for their ivory. Consequently/Because the number of elephants is decreasing.

2. John copies the answers from his brother and hence/thus achieves good marks.

3. I’ll be out all day so/hence I’ll leave your lunch in the oven.

4. Mr. Cox is ill and will therefore/since be unable to lecture today.

5. There is no record of his transaction on our files. As/Thus, there is no proof that the transaction ever took place.

6. Temperatures are likely to fall as/consequently cold weather is moving in from the north.

7. Lisa is getting married: so/hence the ring on her finger.

8. The costs of producing the magazine have risen steadily. We are therefore/hence raising the subscription to twenty dollars for four issues.

9. Benjamin Roe has ambitions to become the world’s leading newspaper proprietor: hence/consequently his purchase of the New York Globe.

10. Since/Hence the three sides of the triangle are equal in length, each of the angles must also be equal.

Exercise 10. CAUSE and EFFECT. Complete the newspaper report and the letter below.

A.(report in the Pudston Gazette)

Residents of Pudston are angry ________¹ the local council are planning to close Pudston library. The decision to close has been taken ² financial savings can be made.

“ ³ Pudston library is the least used of all the libraries in the region, this was the obvious target,” said Council Chairman Bloggs. But Pudston people say this is unfair, ⁴ the lack of use is ⁵ limited opening hours. “It’s true that we don’t use the library much,” said one, “but that’s just ⁶ it’s never open at times people can go there. It’s only open on Thursday mornings for two hours, _⁷ how can people use it?”

B.(letter to the editor of the Pudston Gazette)

Dear Sir,

It is time for Pudstonians to unite so that our voices may be heard. ______ ⁸ everyone in Pudston knows the importance of the library service, I urge all readers to protest to Chairman Bloggs. Our library is in danger just ⁹ we have kept silent for too long. Now is the time to act. Mr. Bloggs is due to visit Pudston next week. ¹⁰ he is giving a speech at Pudston school, let us all gather outside and tell him what we think of his plans.

Exercise 11. A: Join the ideas below a) to imply that the listener already knows the reason; b) to draw the listener’s attention to the cause of the action; c) to focus on the consequence of the action or deductive reasoning when possible.

1. Liz and Colin are having a party / they have got engaged.

2. This is the tourist season / accommodation may be expensive.

3. She wanted to read Dante in the original language / she learnt Italian.

4. I am not going to the disco / I don’t like disco music.

5. You know what is in the letter / I won’t read it to you.

6. Business is booming at the Savemart / the owners plan to open another branch further downtown.

7. I wasn’t present when the accident happened / you can’t blame me.

8. Meg is really angry / she hasn’t been invited to the wedding.

9. Jim had won 50 pounds in a lottery / he bought drinks for everybody.

10. I was hungry / I ate a sandwich.

11. Everybody says Woody Allen’s latest film is good / I think I’ll go and see it.

12. The departure was approaching / All of us were very excited.

13. The excitement will be great / Nobody will be able to sleep.

14. Mr. Crosby liked Morocco very much when he first went there / He wants to go back.

15. This new album of Sting sounds exciting / We are thinking of buying it.

16. My wife coughed a lot last night / She’s thinking of giving up smoking.

17. When I read “The Lord of the Rings” I found it extremely well written / I decided I would read it again one day.

B: Compare your opinions about the ideas below with those of other people in the group and be prepared to justify them, giving reasons.

1. The institution of marriage inevitably causes frustration in relationships.

2. Most of the problems of adolescents are due to the influence of parents.

3. The increase of crime is a direct result of insufficiently severe punishment.

4. The enormous amount of money now invested in popular sports is responsible for the erosion of traditional sporting ethics.

5. Unemployment, and consequently despair about the future, is the main reason why young people turn to drugs.