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EXERCISES

I. State the function of the following cases of morphemic repetition:

1. She unchained, unbolted and unlocked the door. (A. B.)

2. It was there again, more clearly than before: the
terrible expression of pain in her eyes; unblinking, unaccepting,
unbelieving pain. (D. U.)

3. We were sitting in the cheapest of all the cheap res-
taurants that cheapen that very cheap and noisy street, the
Rue des Petits Champs in Paris. (H.)

4. Young Blight made a great show of fetching from his
desk a long thin manuscript volume with a brown paper cover,
and running his finger down the day's appointments, murmuring:

Mr. Aggs, Mr. Baggs, Mr. Caggs, Mr. Daggs, Mr. Faggs, Mr. Gaggs, Mr. Boffin, Yes, sir, quite right. You are a little before your time, sir." (D.)

5. Young Blight made another great show of changing the
volume, taking up a pen, sucking it, dipping it, and running
over previous entries before he wrote. As, "Mr. Alley, Mr.
Bailey, Mr. Calley, Mr. Dalley, Mr. Falley, Mr. Galley,

Mr. Halley, Mr. Lalley, Mr. Malley. And Mr. Boffin." (D.)

6. New scum, of course, has risen to take the place of
the old, but the oldest scum, the thickest scum, and the scummi-
est scum has come from across the ocean. (H.)

7. At the time light rain or storm darked the fortress
I watched the coming of dark from the high tower. The fortress
with its rocky view showed its temporary darkling life of lan-
terns. (Jn. H.)

8. Laughing, crying, cheering, chaffing, singing, David
Rossi's people brought him home in triumph. (H. C.)

9. In a sudden burst of slipping, climbing, jingling, clinking
and talking, they arrived at the convent door. (D.)

10. The procession then re-formed; the chairmen resumed
their stations, and the march was re-commenced. (D.)

11. The precious twins - untried, unnoticed, undirected -
and I say it quiet with my hands down-undiscovered. (S.)

12. We are overbrave and overfearful, overfriendly and
at the same time frightened of strangers, we're oversentimental
and realistic. (P. St.)

13. There was then a calling over of names, and great work
of singing, sealing, stamping, inking, and sanding, with
exceedingly blurred, gritty and undecipherable results. (D.)

14. The Major and the two Sportsmen form a silent group
as Henderson, on the floor, goes through a protracted death
agony, moaning and gasping, shrieking, muttering, shivering,
babbling, reaching upward toward nothing once or twice for help,
turning, writhing, struggling, giving up at last, sinking flat,
and finally, after a waning gasp lying absolutely still. (Js. H.)

15. She was a lone spectator, but never a lonely one, be-
cause the warmth of company was unnecessary to her. (P. Ch.)

16. "Gentlemen, I put it to you that this band is a swin-
dle. This band is an abandoned band. It cannot play a good
godly tune, gentlemen." (W. D.)

17. He wished she would not look at him in this new way.
For things were changing, something was changing now, this
minute, just when he thought they would never change again,
just when he found a way to live in that changelessness. (R. W.)

18. Three million years ago something had passed this
way, had left this unknown and perhaps unknowable symbol of
its purpose, and had returned to the planets - or to the stars.
(A. C.)

19. "Sit down, you dancing, prancing, shambling, scram-
bling fool parrot! Sit down!" (D.)

II. Analyze the morphemic structure and the purpose of creating the occasional words in the following examples:

1. The girls could not take off their panama hats because
this was not far from the school gates and hatlessness was an
offence. (M. Sp.)

2. David, in his new grown-upness, had already a sort of
authority. (I. M.)

3. That fact had all the unbelievableness of the sudden
wound. (R. W.)

4. Suddenly he felt a horror of her otherness. (J. B.)

5. Lucy wasn't Willie's luck. Or his unluck either. (R. W.)

6. She was waiting for something to happen or for everything
to un-happen. (Т. Н.)

7. He didn't seem to think that that was very funny.
But he didn't seem to think it was especially unfunny. (R. W.)

8. "You asked him."

"I'm un-asking him," the Boss replied. (R. W.)

9. He looked pretty good for a fifty-four-year-old former
college athlete who for years had overindulged and un-
derexercized. (D. U.)

10. She was a young and unbeautiful woman. (I. Sh.)

11. The descriptions were of two unextraordinary boys:
three and a half and six years old. (D. U.)

12. The girl began to intuit what was required of her.
(Jn. H.)

13. "Mr. Hamilton, you haven't any children, have you?"
"Well, no. And I'm sorry about that, I guess. I am sorriest

about that." (J. St.)

14. "To think that I should have lived to be good-morn-
inged by Belladonna Took's son!" (A. T.)

15. There were ladies too, en cheveux, in caps and bonnets,
some of whom knew Trilby, and thee'd and thou'd with familiar
and friendly affection, while others mademoiselle'd her with
distant politeness and were mademoiselle's and madame'd back
again. (D. du M.)

16. Parritt turns startledly. (O'N.)

17. The chairs are very close together - so close that the advisee almost touches knees with the adviser. (Jn. B.)

III. Discuss the following cases of morphemic foregrounding:

1. The District Attorney's office was not only panelled,
draped and carpeted, it was also chandeliered with a huge brass
affair hanging from the center of the ceiling. (D. U.)

2. He's no public offender, bless you, now! He's medalled

and ribboned, and starred, and crossed, and I don't know what all'd, like a born nobleman. (D.)

3. I gave myself the once-over in the bathroom mirror:
freshly shaved, clean-shirted, dark-suited and neck-tied. (D. U.)

4. Well, a kept woman is somebody who is perfumed, and
clothed, and wined, and dined, and sometimes romanced heavi-
ly. (Jn. C.)

5. It's the knowledge of the unendingness and of the rep-
etitious uselessness that makes Fatigue fatigue. (J.)

6. The loneliness would suddenly overcome you like
lostness and too-lateness, and a grief you had no name for.
(R. W.)

7. I came here determined not be angry, or weepy, or
preachy. (U.)

8. Militant feminists grumble that history is exactly what
it says-His-story-and not Her story at all. (D. B.)

9. This dree to-ing and fro-ing persisted throughout the night
and the next day. (D. B.)

10. "I love you mucher."

"Plently mucher? Me tooer." (J. Br.)

11. "I'm going to build me the God-damnedest, biggest,
chromium-platedest, formaldehyde-stinkingest free hospital and
health center." (R. W.)

12. So: I'm not just talented. I'm geniused. (Sh. D.)

13. Chickens - the tiny balls of fluff passed on into semi-
naked pullethood and from that into dead henhood. (Sh. A.)

14. I'll disown you, I'll disinherit you, I'll unget you.
(R. Sh.)

15. "Ready?" said the old gentleman, inquiringly, when
his guests had been washed, mended, brushed, and brandied. (D.)

CHAPTER II. LEXICAL LEVEL

Word and its Semantic Structure. Connotational Meanings of a Word. The Role of the Context in the Actualization of Meaning

The idea of previous chapters was to illustrate potential possibilities of linguistic units more primitive than the word, found at lower levels of language structure and yet capable of conveying additional information when foregrounded in a specially organized context.

The forthcoming chapter is going to be one of the longest and most important in this book, for it is devoted to a lin-

guistic unit of major significance - the word, which names, qualifies and evaluates the micro- and macrocosm of the sur- rounding world. The most essential feature of a word is that it expresses the concept of a thing, process, phenomenon, na-ming (denoting) them. Concept is a logical category, its linguistic counterpart is meaning. Meaning, as our outstanding scholar L. Vygotsky put it, is the unity of generalization, communication and thinking. An entity of extreme complexity, the meaning of a word is liable to historical changes, of which you know from the course of lexicology and which are responsible for the formation of an expanded semantic structure of a word. This structure is constituted of various types of lexical meanings, the major one being denotational, which informs of the subject of communication; and also including connotational, which informs about the participants and conditions of communication.

The list and specification of connotational meanings varies with different linguistic schools and individual scholars and includes such entries as pragmatic (directed at the perlocutionary effect of utterance), associative (connected, through individual psychological or linguistic associations, with related and non-related notions), ideological, or conceptual (revealing political, social, ideological preferences of the user), evaluative (stating the value of the indicated notion), emotive (revealing the emotional layer of cognition and perception),* expressive (aiming at creating the image of the object in question), stylistic, (indicating "the register", or the situation of the communication).

The above-mentioned meanings are classified as connotational not only because they supply additional (and not the logical / de-notational) information, but also because, for the most part, they are observed not all at once and not in all words either. Some of them are more important for the act of communication than the others. Very often they overlap. So, all words possessing an emotive meaning are also evaluative (e. g. "rascal", "ducky"), though this rule is not reversed, as we can find non-emotive, intellectual evaluation (e. g. "good", "bad"). Also, all emotive words (or practically all, for that matter) are also expressive, while there are hundreds of expressive words which cannot be treated as emotive (take, for example the so-called expressive

* Cf. the famous quotation from V. I. Lenin: «Нельзя «изучать дейст-вительное положение вещей», не квалифицируя, не оценивая его». Ленин В. И. Полн. собр. соч., т. 23, с. 240).

verbs, which not only denote some action or process but also create their image, as in "to gulp" = to swallow in big lumps, in a hurry; or "to sprint" = to run fast).

The number, importance and the overlapping character of connotational meanings incorporated into the semantic structure of a word, are brought forth by the context, i. e. a concrete speech act that identifies and actualizes each one. More than that: each context does not only specify the existing semantic (both denotational and connotational) possibilities of a word, but also is capable of adding new ones, or deviating rather considerably from what is registered in the dictionary. Because of that all contextual meanings of a word can never be exhausted or comprehensively enumerated. Compare the following cases of contextual use of the verb "to pop" in Stan Barstow's novel "Ask Me Tomorrow":

1. His face is red at first and then it goes white and his eyes stare
as if they'll pop out of his head.

2. "Just pop into the scullery and get me something to stand
this on."

3. 'There is a fish and chip shop up on the main road. I thought
you might show your gratitude by popping up for some."

4. "I've no need to change or anything then."
"No, just pop your coat on and you're fine."

5. "Actually Mrs. Swallow is out. But she won't be long.
She's popped up the road to the shops."

6. "Would you like me to pop downstairs and make you a
cup of cocoa?"

In semantic actualization of a word the context plays a dual role: on the one hand, it cuts off all meanings irrelevant for the given communicative situation. On the other, it foregrounds one of the meaningful options of a word, focusing the communicators' attention on one of the denotational or connonational components of its semantic structure.

The significance of the context is comparatively small in the field of stylistic connotations, because the word is labelled stylistically before it enters some context, i.e. in the dictionary: recollect the well-known contractions - vulg., arch., sl., etc., which make an indispensable part of a dictionary entry. So there is sense to start the survey of connotational meanings with the stylistic differentiation of the vocabulary.

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