Metonymy

Metonymy is based on a definite relation between the object implied and the object named.

Ex. As the sword is the worst argument that can be used, so should be the last.

The word 'sword' is an expression of metonymy. Besides its logical meaning, this word acquired a contextual meaning - that of military action, repression. The interaction between the logical meaning of the word 'sword" and its contextual meaning is obvious. It is based on the relation between the instrument and the action performed by it. The most common types of relations, i.e. the most frequent types of metonymy, are:

1) The relations that exist between an object and the material out of which it is made.

2) The relations that exist between the instrument and the action it performs; or between a part of the body and its functions: ex. "The pen is stronger than the sward'.

3) The relations that exist between the symbol and the phenomenon it symbolizes: example. "From the cradle to the grave".

4) The relation that exists between the part and the whole, or the singular and the plural. This type of metonymy is called synechdochy.

Like all other stylistic devices metonymy may be genuine and trite. Since the types of relations between two objects can be finally limited, they are observed again and again, and metonymy in most cases is trite (to earn one's bread, to live by the pen, to keep one's mouth shut, the crown for the king, he has no roof over his head, etc.). In the English language a number of trite metonymies are widely used. The stylistic effect of metonymies of this type is weak. So called linguistic metonymies, can not be regarded as stylistic devices, ex "hands are wanted".

Metonymy as a stylistic device is used to achieve concreteness of description. No matter what type of metonymy is employed, it tends to make abstract ideas more concrete and life-like image. By giving a specific detail connected with the phenomenon, the author evokes a concrete and life-like image.

Irony

The third type of interaction between the logical meaning and contextual meaning of a word is irony. Irony is a stylistic device by which the words used are made to convey a meaning opposite to their logical meaning. Irony is a clash of two opposite meanings within the same context, which is sustained in oral speech by intonation. Irony can be realized also through the medium of the situation, which, in written speech, may extend as far as a paragraph, chapter or even the whole book.

Example: Stoney smiled the sweet smile of an alligator.

Irony calls a clear understanding from both writer and reader, that the word is used in a sense which is directly the opposite of its logical meaning. The context helps the reader understand the interaction between the logical meaning and the contextual meaning. In certain cases a much wider context is needed to understand that the word is used ironically, and to understand its stylistic effect.

Irony may be expressed by any part of speech, usually by a noun, adjective and adverb. The effect of irony largely depends on the unexpectedness and seeming lack of logic of a word used by the author in a context. The reader is fully aware of the contrast between what is logically expected and what is said. This contrast, this interaction of the contextual and logical meanings of a word produces humorous effect. Irony may be used to achieve bitter mockery and sarcasm as well. Bitter, socially or politically aimed irony is referred to as sarcasm.

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