III. Classification of Consonants

Consonants are normally classified according to the following principles:

1. the type of obstruction and the manner of noise production;

2. the active speech organ and the place of obstruction;

3. the work of the vocal cords and the force of articulation;

The position of the soft palate.

1. Due to the type of obstruction and the manner of noise production consonants are divided into occlusive, constrictive and affricates.

§ Occlusive consonantscan be: occlusive sonorants[m], [n], [ŋ]; occlusive plosives[p], [b], [t], [d], [g], [k].

§ Constrictiveinclude: fricative unicentral[f], [v], [T ], [ð], [s], [z]; fricative bicentral[∫],[Z]; constrictive medial sonorants[w], [r], [j]; constrictive lateral sonorant [l].

§ Affricates:[t∫], [G].

2. According to the active organ of speech and the place of obstruction, consonants may be labial, lingual and pharyngeal.

§ Labialsare divided into bilabial[p], [b], [m], [w] and labial-dental[f], [v].

§ Lingualsinclude: forelingual apical[t], [d], [l], [n], [s], [z] (the active organ of speech); forelingual cacuminal[r] (the active organ of speech); dental[T], [D] (the active organ of speech); alveolar[t], [d], [n] ,[l], [s], [z] (the point of articulation); palatal-alveolar[∫ ], [Z], [t∫], [G] (the point of articulation); post-alveolar[r] (the point of articulation).

§ Medio-lingual[j].

§ Back-lingual[k], [g], [ŋ].

§ Pharyngeal[h].

3. Due to the work of the vocal cords and the force of articulation consonants are subdivided into

§ voiced [b], [d], [z], [r], [w], [j], [l], [m], [g], [v], etc. and voiceless[p], [h], [t], [k], [s], [f], etc. Voiced consonants are lenis while voiceless consonants are fortis.

4. According to the position to the soft palate, consonant sounds may be nasal[n], [m], [ŋ]and oral[t], [d], [s], [z], etc.

IV. Classification of Vowels

Vowels can be classified according to:

1. the horizontal movement of the tongue: front[i:], [e], [æ]; front-retracted[I]; mixed:, [ә:], [ә]; back-advanced[u], [A], [O]; back[u:], [R], [L].

2. the vertical movement of the tongue: close[i:], [u:], [I], [u]; mid-open[e], [ә], [ә:]; open:[æ ], [A], [R].

3. the position of the lips: rounded[u:], [u], [L], [O]; unrounded (the rest of the sounds).

4. 4. the degree of tension tense: all long vowels; lax ( all short vowels).

Articulation of English Sounds

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