In language teaching

When linguists and language specialists seek to improve the quality of language teaching, they often refer to general principles and theories concerning

1. how language are learned

2. how knowledge of language is represented and organized in memory or

3. how language itself is structured, they try to find a rational answer to such questions as how to select and organize for teaching vocabulary and grammar.

In describing existing methods we should bear in mind the difference between a philosophy of language teaching at the level of principles and theories and a set or sets of procedures for teaching a language.

To clarify this difference the American applied linguist Edward Anthony proposed a scheme in 1963. He identified 3 levels of the conceptualization and organization and termed them approach, method, and technique.

This arrangement is hierarchal. The organizational key is that techniques carry out a method which is consistent with an approach.

An approach is a set of correlative assumption dealing with the

nature of language teaching and learning. An approach

is axiomatic. It describes the nature of the subject

matter to be taught.

Method is an overall plan for the orderly presentation of

language material, no part of which contradicts, and all

of which is based upon, the selected approach. An

approach is axiomatic, a method is procedural. Within

one approach, there can be many methods.

A technique is implementational- that which actually takes place in

a classroom. It is a particular trick or contrivance used

to accomplish an immediate objective. Techniques

must be consistent with a method and therefore in harmony with an approach as well.

According to Anthony’s model, approach is a level at which assumptions and beliefs about a language and language learning are specified. Method is a level at which theory is put into practice and at which choices are made about the particular skills to be taught, the content will be presented. Technique is a level at which classroom procedures are described.

As has been mentioned above approach refers to theories about the nature of a language and language learning that serve as the source of practice and principles in language teaching.

We shall discuss three different theoretical views of language and language proficiency.

The first, the most traditional of the three, is the structural view.

It is the view that language is a system of structurally related elements for the coding of meaning. The target of language learning is to master the elements of this system:

1. phonological units (phonemes);

2. grammatical units ( clauses, phrases, sentences);

3. grammatical operation ( adding, shifting, joining, or transforming elements);

4. lexical items ( function words and structure words ).

The Audio lingual method embodies this particular view of language and such contemporary methods as Total Physical Response (TRR) and the Silent Way.

The second view of the language is the functional view – view that language is a vehicle for the expression of functional meaning. The communicative movement in language teaching subscribes to this theory hold that language teaching content should be organized by categories of meaning and function rather than by elements of structure and grammar. The syllabus will include not only elements of grammar and vocabulary but also specify the topics, notions and concepts the learner needs to communicate about.

The third view of language can be called interactional view. It sees language as a vehicle for the realization of interpersonal relation. Language is seen as a tool for social relation. This theory includes interaction analysis, conversation analysis ethno methodology. It focuses on the patternsof moves, acts, negotiation and interaction found in conversational exchanges. Language teaching content may be specified and organized by patterns of exchange and interaction.

Structural, functional and interactional models of language provide the axioms and theoreticalframework that motivate particular teaching method, but they must be complemented by theories of language learning.

Different approaches and methods are based on answers to two questions:

1. What are the psycholinguistic and cognitive processes involved in language learning?

2. What are the conditions for these processes to be activated?

As far as the first question is concerned, approaches and teaching methods are influenced by three rival psychological theories: behaviourism, mentalism and cognitivism.Behaviourism had a considerable effect on Audiolingualism.

To the behaviorists, the human being is an organism capable of a wide variety of behaviors. The occurrence of these behaviors is based on three steps in learning: a stimulus,which causes behavior; a response triggered by stimulus; and reinforced, which serves to make the response as being appropriate and encourages the repetition of the response in the future. So, according to this theory (behaviorism) to learn a foreign language is to acquire a set of the language skills and habits. Learning is considered a mechanic activity.The proponents of this method consider speech primary. The lesson usually begins with a dialogue, which contains certain grammatical structures and vocabulary. The students are supposed to mimic the dialogue and then to memorize it. The dialogue is followed by drill based on the structures used in it. The aim of the drill is to make the pattern automatic, that is to form certain habits.

Unlike behaviorists, mentalists consider learning a conscious process.They assume that all human beings have an innate ability to learn languages. The proponents of approaches based on mentalism deny the idea that language is “learned behavior” and they emphasize that language is the product of our mental/rational characteristics.They claim that “competence precedes performance”.The lesson should begin with an explanation of the rule and should be followed by exercises which help the learners to practice the rule consciously.Exercises are followed by activities aimed at achieving “communicative competence”. These activities include dialogues, games etc.

The assumption of cognitive code is that conscious learning can be accomplished by everyone, that all rules are learnable, and that conscious knowledge should be available at all times through task based teaching, problem-solving, guided learning, learner-centered humanistic approaches.

Psychological theories have greatly influenced language teaching. Methods and approaches differ greatly depending on the theory they are based on. Approaches and teaching methods are based either on behaviorism or on mentalism. Some of approaches contain features of both behaviorism and mentalism (Counseling/Community learning, Total Physical Response).

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