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Example 3: writing a report (upper intermediate)

The following report-writing sequence is detailed, and will take some time. As the sequence progresses, students analyse the report genre, look at some language points, gather information, draft their report, check it and produce a final version (thus immersing themselves not only in the writing product, but in the process of writing).

When they have listened to an interview about the position of women around the world, students are asked to read a report and match sections A-D in it with the following headings:

Positive comments

Conclusion and recommendations

Negative facts

Aim of the report

Students then complete the report with the linking words 'according to', 'also', 'although', 'as a result', 'for example', 'furthermore', 'however', 'in addition', 'moreover', 'on the other hand', 'in this way' and 'to sum up'. They then move on to do some work on using synonyms. Now that students have been prepared they write a report in six stages:

Stage 1: students are asked to choose one from a list of topics such as the benefits/dangers of mass tourism, whether banning things ever works (such as gangster rap lyrics, etc), answers to world poverty, freedom to choose (e.g. smoking, gun ownership, etc) or whether parents should be liable for the actions of their children. Alternatively, they can choose a topic of their own.

Stage 2: students are asked to gather information from a variety of sources including -in the case of the example above - the module of the coursebook the text occurs in, a library, the Internet (the teacher can give students lists of websites - rather as happened in the webquest on page 105), CD-ROM encyclopedias, magazine articles, TV and radio programmes, and anyone they would like to interview.

Stage 3: students plan their reports. They should decide what to include, what order to put it in (after looking back at the report they studied) and what their conclusions will be.

Stage 4: students write a draft of their report.

Stage 5: students check through the report in order to decide how effective it is and correct any language mistakes.

Stage 6: students write their final report (they may have repeated stages 4 and 5 more than once).

During stages 4 and 5, it is important for the teacher to be on hand to suggest changes, question parts of the report and be a useful resource for students so that they can improve their writing as they continue. When the reports are finished, the teacher can collect them for correction, or they can be assembled on a class noticeboard or put up on a class website.

More writing suggestions

Instant writing: one way of building the writing habit (see above) is to use instant writing activities as often as possible with both children/teenagers and adults who are reluctant writers. Instant writing activities are those where students are asked to write immediately in response to a teacher request. We can, for example, dictate half sentences for students to complete (e.g. 'My favourite relative is ...' or 'I will never forget the time I ...'). We can ask students to write two sentences about a topic 'right now'. We can give them three words and tell them to put them into a sentence as quickly as possible.

Instant writing is designed both to make students comfortable when writing, and also to give them thinking time before they say the sentences they have written aloud.

Using music and pictures: music and pictures are excellent stimuli for both writing and speaking. For example, we can play a piece of music and the students have to imagine and then write out the film scene they think it could accompany (this can be done after they have looked at a film script model). We can dictate the first sentence of a story and then have the students complete the story, based on the music we play them. We can then dictate the first sentence again and have them write a different story (because the music they hear is very different). They can then read out one of their stories and the class has to guess which music excerpt inspired it.

Pictures offer a wealth of possibilities. We can ask students to write descriptions of one of a group of pictures; their classmates then have to guess which one it is. They can write postcards based on pictures we give them. We can get them to look at portraits and write the inner thoughts of the characters or their diaries, or an article about them.

All of these activities are designed to get students writing freely, in an engaging way.

Newspapers and magazines: the different kinds of text found in newspapers and magazines offer a range of possibilities for genre analysis (see page 113), followed by writing within that genre. For example, we can get students to look at a range of different articles and ask them to analyse how headlines are constructed, and how articles are normally arranged (e.g. the first paragraph often - but not always - offers a summary of the whole article). They then write an article about a real or imaginary news story that interests them. At advanced levels, we can get students to look at the same story dealt with by different kinds of publication and ask them to write specifically for one or the other.

We can do the same kind of genre analysis in newspaper and magazine advertisements. 'Lonely hearts' entries, for example, always conform to a genre frame. Our students can learn a lot from analysing the genre and being able to imitate it. In the same vein, agony column letters (where people write in to ask for help with a problem) offer engaging writing practice.

Finally, we can show students a story and have them respond to it in a variety of different genres, and for different audiences (e.g. the report of a long traffic delay can prompt letters to the newspaper, emails, text messages, letters of apology, etc).

Brochures and guides: we can get students to look at a variety of brochures (e.g. for a town, entertainment venue, health club or leisure complex) to analyse how they are put together. They can then write their own brochure or town guide, using this analysis to help them.

Younger learners may enjoy writing brochures and guides for their areas which give completely wrong information (e.g. 'Sending postcards home: Look for the bins marked "Rubbish" or "Litter" and your postcards will be delivered next day; Travelling by bus: The buses in London are similar to taxis. Tell the drivers where you want to go and they'll drive you home!'). This is potentially just as engaging for children and teenagers as writing serious pieces of work.

Poetry: many teachers like getting students to write poems because it allows them to express themselves in a way that other genres, perhaps, do not. But we will have to give students models to help them write (to start with, anyway), since many of them will be unused to this kind of writing.

We can ask them to write acrostic poems (where the letters which start each line, when read downwards, form a word which is the topic of the poem). They can write a poetry alphabet (a line for each letter), or we can give them sentence frames to write with 'I like ... because ...' x 3, and then 'But I hate ...'). We can get them to write lines about someone they like with instructions such as 'Write about this person as if they were a kind of weather'. We can give them models of real poems which they have to imitate.

Poetry writing is especially appropriate for younger learners who are usually not afraid to have a go in the ways suggested above; but it is appropriate for older learners, too, since it allows them to be more creative than is permitted in some other activities.

Collaborative writing: students gain a lot from constructing texts together. For example, we can have them build up a letter on the board, where each line is written by a different student (with help from the class, the group and/or the teacher). We can tell a story which students then have to try to reproduce in groups (a version of this activity goes by the name dictogloss, where, when students have tried to recreate what they have heard, they compare their versions with the original as a way of increasing their language awareness).

We can set up a story circle in which each student in the group has a piece of paper on which they write the first line of a story (which we dictate to them). They then have to write the next sentence. After that, they pass their papers to the person next to them, and they write the next sentence of the story they now have in front of them. They then pass the paper to the next student and again write the next sentence of the (new) story they have. Finally, when the papers get back to their original owners, those students write the conclusion.

Students can also engage in collaborative writing around a computer screen.

Writing to each other: the email interview (see above) is an example of getting students to write to each other. They can also write emails, or any other kind of message (the teacher can act as a postal worker) which has to be answered. They can be involved, under our supervision, in live chat sessions on the Internet, or we can organise pen pal exchanges with students in other countries (often called mousepals or keypals when done via the Internet).

Writing in other genres: there are countless different genres that students can write in apart from those mentioned so far. We can have students write personal narratives and other stories. We can prepare them for this by looking at the way other writers do it. We can analyse first lines of novels and then have students write their own attention-grabbing lines. We can get students to complete stories that are only half told. For many of these activities, getting the students to think together before they attempt the task - brainstorming ideas - will be a major factor in their success.

Students can write discursive essays in which they assemble arguments both for and against a proposition, work out a coherent order for their arguments, study various models for such an essay and then write their own. The procedures we follow may be similar to the spoken discussion ideas outlined on page 128.

All these ideas depend for their success on students having a chance to share ideas, look at examples of the genre, plan their writing and then draft and edit it.

Correcting written work

Most students find it very dispiriting if they get a piece of written work back and it is covered in red ink, underlinings and crossings-out. It is a powerful visual statement of the fact that their written English is terrible.

Of course, some pieces of written work are completely full of mistakes, but even in these cases, over-correction can have a very demotivating effect. Rather than this, the teacher has to achieve a balance between being accurate and truthful, on the one hand, and treating students sensitively and sympathetically, on the other.

One way of avoiding the 'over-correction' problem is for teachers to tell their students that for a particular piece of work they are only going to correct mistakes of punctuation, or only spelling or only grammar, etc. This has two advantages: it makes students concentrate on that particular aspect, and it cuts down on the correction.

Another technique which many teachers use is to agree on a list of written symbols (S = spelling, WO = word order, etc). When they come across a mistake, they underline it discreetly and write the symbol in the margin. This makes correction look less damaging. Where students write with electronic media, teachers can use editing tools such as Track Changes. These make it easier for students to write correct versions of their originals. However, such applications should be used carefully since they, too, can be very discouraging.

The way we react to students' writing will depend on what kind of writing it is. When students hand us final pieces of work, we may correct it using techniques such as the ones above. However, while students are actually involved in the writing process, correction will not help them learn to edit their own work, whereas responding (telling students what you think, teasing out alternatives and making suggestions) will. But whatever kind of writing students have been doing, we need to react not just to the form of what they have written, but also to the content (what they have written about). We also need to make sure that students do not just put corrected work into their folders without fully understanding why we have reacted as we have, and without doing their best to put things right.

№10.Describe the procedure for teaching writing. Give examples of activities for each stage.

« Pre-writing: A Place to Start

Pre-writing, the first stage in the writing process, begins long before the writer puts thoughts into writing. The experiences, observations, and interactions that students have prior to entering the classroom have an impact upon what they will write and how they will write it. Within the classroom, pre-writing prompts and activities can be integrated into the writing process as scaffolds by teachers to help students generate ideas for their writing and to practice the thinking skills inherent in the activity.

To initiate thinking and generate possible writing topics, it is important for students to explore ideas for writing topics using a variety of pre-writing strategies, such as the following:

- Brainstorming - Constructing thought webs and graphic organizers - Interviewing a person knowledgeable about the topic - Engaging in peer or teacher-student discussions and conferences - Listening to music - Reading about and researching the topic

- Viewing media such as pictures, movies, and television - Listing and categorizing information - Reflecting upon personal experience - Examining writing models - Responding to literature - Free writing or timed free writing about the topic - Role playing and other drama techniques - Asking the 5 Ws--who, what, where, when and why.

Sample Pre-writing Activity. Teachers may request that students bring pictures of people, or the teacher may supply them (photographs or pictures clipped from magazines). Each picture should show several people in sufficient detail to reveal size, facial expression, dress, and other facets of character.
Quickly walk the students through this activity, question by question, so they record the first thoughts and reactions that the pictures generate, rather than dwelling too long on one question. The teacher should ask students to examine their pictures closely, and explain that they will need to use their imagination for the activity. Some questions the teacher might ask are:
- Who is the main character in the picture?
- What is an appropriate name for this character?
- How old is this character?
- What kind of work might the character do for a living? Give reasons to support your decision.
- What might the person be thinking or saying? What makes you imagine this?
- What other characteristics are revealed by the character's dress and stance?
- What might have happened before the picture was taken? What might happen next?

« Planning: Organizing for Drafting

After students have generated some ideas, they must decide what they will say about their chosen topic. Students develop an initial plan for the product they will compose. As they do so, they must consider the purpose, audience, point of view, and format because these elements have implications for both the planning and the drafting of the written product.

To develop an initial plan for drafting, students organize the information they have generated during pre-writing by using such structures as outlines, story frames, maps, diagrams, charts, and concept webs.

To consider purpose, students write to express ideas, feelings, emotions, and opinions, and they must ask themselves, "What is my purpose for writing this piece?" Some purposes for students’ writings are:
1. to express personal feelings or viewpoints
2. to imagine "What if ...?"
3. to narrate
4. to entertain and/or amuse
5. to describe
6. to inform or explain
7. to persuade or convince
8. to request
9. to inquire or question
10. to explore and experiment with ideas and formats
11. to clarify thinking.

To consider audience, students must consider who they are writing for and students must ask themselves, "Who is my intended audience?" Some possible audiences are:
1. familiar, known audiences: self, friends, peers, family, teachers
2. extended, known audiences: community, student body, local media
3. extended, unknown audiences: wider range of media and other publications

« Drafting: A Time to Indulge

At this point in the process, the emphasis is on content and meaning rather than on mechanics and conventions. This is the time for writers to get down their ideas and thoughts, composing rough drafts based upon pre-writing and planning activities and considerations. As they compose, writers begin to determine what to include and exclude, and make initial decisions about how these ideas will be organized. During the drafting stage of the writing process, meaning begins to evolve.

To produce a first, rough draft, students record their ideas rapidly in order to capture the essence of what they have to say. They do not have to make any attempt to revise or edit at this point. They focus on talking to the reader and begin to develop a personal style as their voices emerge.

To write subsequent drafts, students often accomplish their work by crossing out, adding, and rearranging ideas directly on the page. The students’ redrafting does not necessarily require an entire rewrite at this time.

To reflect upon their own writing, students can conference with self, peers and the teacher. Through conferencing, students can get constructive feedback and support that may help them to shape their writings. A set of questions or a checklist can be used to assist writers and conference partners as they strive to help the writer make meaning clear.

Example 1: Self-Conference Checklist

As you write ... Ask yourself some of these questions:
- How do I feel about what I've written so far?
- What is good that I can enhance?
- Is there anything about it that concerns me, does not fit, or seems wrong?
- What am I discovering as I write this piece?
- What surprises me? Where is it leading?
- What is my purpose?
- What is the one most important thing that I am trying to convey?
- How can I build this idea? Are there places that I wander away from my key idea?
- Who is my audience?

Example 2: Teacher-Student Checklist

During the teacher-student conference the teacher may as questions such as

- What is the part that you like best?
- Does it say what you want it to say?
- What do you mean by...?
- Where/when does your story take place?
- Are you satisfied with the beginning/ending? Why or why not?
- Does this sentence/word/phrase make sense to you?
- What reaction do you want your reader to have?
- How do you see your ideas being rearranged or changed? Why?

« Post-writing: Preparing To Go Public

When students have an authentic audience and purpose, they want to rework their written drafts, polishing them for presentation or publication. Going public means taking a huge risk; the student's self-esteem is on the line, so the decision about how and with whom to share their writing must be up to the student writer. Teachers may encourage students to share certain pieces or determine the number of pieces that students are required to share or publish within a set time period, but ultimately the decision about which pieces to share, and with whom, should be left up to the writer.

To prepare a final, polished draft, students may write in legible handwriting or use a word-processing program to prepare a polished written work. Then their writings go to public through
1. Sharing
2. Publishing
3. Using a portfolio

Sharing

Students may share their written work. Sharing is a useful post- writing activity since it provides students with an immediate audience. Some examples of sharing students’ writings include
1. The author's chair, which provides opportunity for students to share their writing aloud with the whole class;
2. Sharing in small groups or with a partner; and
3. Using bulletin board space assigned to a specific genre or to a class of students.

At times, students should be provided with opportunities to decide if they wish to share their written work, and whether they will share in pairs, in small groups, or with the whole class.

Publishing

Students may choose to publish their writing. Some examples of publishing formats include:
- Class booklets
- School or local newspapers
- Yearbook
- Writing contests
- Magazines

Using a portfolio

To decide if the written work will be placed in the student's assessment portfolio, teachers can negotiate with students to generate guidelines about the number and variety of pieces that they are required to place in their portfolio for assessment and evaluation purposes. Contracts may be useful to address individual student needs and abilities. Students should be involved in making choices about which of their written pieces will become part of their portfolios.

№ 11. Describe the procedure for teaching speaking. Give examples of activities for each stage.

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