• Гідрологія і Гідрометрія
• Господарське право
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• Технічні засоби організації дорожнього руху
• Товарознавство продовольчих товарів

CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

There are laws which enable citizens to take legal action against the state - against, for example, a public authority or even against the government itself. These actions are part of constitutional law.

As knowledge of the law has increased among the general public, so have the number and range of constitutional law cases. In 1991, an unmarried couple complained in the Tokyo District Court that it was unconstitutional for the local authority to register their daughter as illegitimate. They said this could lead to discrimination and was against the equality of individuals guaranteed in the Japanese Constitution.

A constitution is the political and ideological structure within which a system of laws operates. Most countries have a formal written Constitution describing bow laws are to be made and enforced. The French Constitution, for example, sets a seven year term of office for the president; the U.S. constitution sets a four year term. In Switzerland, a referendum (national vote) must be held on any issue for which a petition signed by 10,000 people has been gathered; in Ireland, referenda are to be used only in the case of changes in the constitution itself. In Germany, a change in the constitution requires a special majority vote in parlfamenl, not the simple majority necessary for other laws. Many other countries put the constitution above other laws by making it difficult to change.

One of the reasons for having special constitutional laws is to prevent governments from becoming too powerful and from interfering too much in the lives of individuals. As a check upon over powerful government most modern constitutions have adopted the principle of separation of powers, developed in the 18^th century by the French political philosopher Montesquieu. Montesquieu argued that the functions of the state could be divided into policy formulation and direction (executive), - lawmaking (legislative), and interpretationand application of the law (judicial). To stop governments from becoming too powerful these functions should be carried out by separate institutions, and there should be a balance between them.

In the United States, for example, the president (executive) is elected by the people and attempts to carry out his policy promises through a presidential office of advisers. The Constitution gives him many important powers, such as control of the armed forces and appointment of Supreme Court justices, but many of his decisions and all new legislation must be approved by a majority in Congress (legislature), which is also elected by the people. Many presidents have had important policies blocked by Congress. The Supreme Court (judiciary) has the task of interpreting laws which have been disputed in lower courts, and of deciding whether a law passed by Congress or by one of the individual states is in keeping with the Constitution.

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