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Transference (metaphor and metonymy).

It is often due to resemblance of form, position, colour, similarity of function. It is change from concrete to abstract, from specific to general.

Types of changing of meaning.

CHANGING OF MEANING

Word meaning changes in the course of historical development of language under the influence of extralinguistic and linguistic factors.

Extralinguistic factors – changes in the life of speech community, changes in economic and social structure, ideas, way of life as reflected in a word meaning.

E.g.: car – any 4-wheeled wagon

motor-car

Linguistic factors – development of language system itself.

E.g.: deer – O.E. any animal

Modern E. “олень”.

1. Extension – extension of a word range, when the exact denotation is lost and the word’s meaning extends and is generalized.

E.g.: country – сільська місцевість - країна

To fly – махати крилами – літати.

New meaning is wider and more abstract.

2. Narrowing – a word of wide meaning gets narrower, specialized sense. Its usage is restricted to some objects.

E.g.: corpse – будь-яке тіло - труп

field – поле – галузь.

1) Metaphor – transference of name, based on association of similarity.

A new meaning appears as a result of associating 2 objects due to their outer similarity.

Metaphor is based on different types of similarity.

E.g.: a head of a cabbage (shape)

Long distance – long speech (duration of time and space)

Short line – short time (duration of time and space)

Transition of proper names into common:

Don Juan, Adonys, Narcissus, Cleopatra, Hercules, Don Quixote.

2) Metonymy – transference of meaning based upon association of contiguity.

The name of one thing is changed for the name of another thing to which it is related by association.

The transference may be influenced by many relations:

Spatial: house – House of Commons, chair – chairman, department, cash – safe.

Causial: youth – young people, old age – old people.

Symbolic: the British Crown – monarchy, White House – US president, Capitol - US Congress, Fort Knox – US gold.

Instrumental: hand – handwriting.

Common names derived from proper: diesel, mackintosh.

4. Elevation – changes depending on the attitude to the object named, connected with social evaluation. It is change from humble meaning to position of greater importance.

E.g.:fond: foolish – loving

Nice: foolish – fine

Lord: master of the house – title

Lady: mistress of the house – title.

5. Degradation – change by which for one reason or another a word falls into a derogatory emotive change.

A change in denotational component brings extension or restriction of meaning.

A change in connotational component results in elevation or degradation of meaning.

E.g.:knave: boy – thief

Villain – peasant – servant – rascal

Bubble – булькати – бубоніти нерозбірливо

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