Text A. Some Aspects of Urban Planning

1. Cities and towns are growing all over the world, and their appearance is changing. That’s why the role of urban planners in the planning process is very important. They have to take into consideration different aspects of planning: aesthetics, safety, slums, urban decay, reconstruction and renewal, transport, environmental factors, light and sound, etc. We are going to consider some of them.

2. Historically within the Middle East, Europe and the rest of the Old World, settlements were located on higher ground (for defense) and close to fresh water sources. Cities have often grown onto coastal and flood plains at risk of floods and storm surges. Urban planners must consider these threats. If the dangers can be localized then the affected regions can be made into parkland or green belt. Extreme weather, flood, or other emergencies can often be greatly mitigated with secure emergency evacuation routes and emergency operations centres. These are relatively inexpensive and unintrusive, and many consider them a reasonable precaution for any urban space.

In recent years, practitioners have also been expected to maximize the accessibility of an area to people with different abilities, practising the notion of "inclusive design," to anticipate criminal behaviour and consequently to "design-out crime". Some city planners try to control criminality with structures designed from theories such as socio-architecture or environmental determinism. Oscar Newman and Jane Jacobs are notable environmental determinists. These theories say that an urban environment can influence individuals' obedience. The theories often say that psychological pressure develops in more densely developed, unadorned areas. This stress causes some crimes and some use of illegal drugs. The antidote is usually more individual space and better, more beautiful space design.

The "broken-windows" theory argues that small indicators of neglect, such as broken windows and unkempt lawns, promote a feeling that an area is in a state of decay. Anticipating decay, people fail to maintain their own properties. The theory suggests that abandonment causes crime, rather than crime causes abandonment.

3. Transport within urbanized areas presents unique problems. The density of an urban environment increases traffic, which can harm businesses and increase pollution unless properly managed. Parking space for private vehicles requires the construction of large parking garages in high density areas. This space could often be more valuable for other development.

Good planning uses transit oriented development, which attempts to place higher densities of jobs or residents near high-volume transportation. For example, some cities permit commerce and multistory apartment buildings only within one block of train stations and multilane boulevards, and accept single-family dwellings and parks farther away.

Floor area ratio is often used to measure density. This is the floor area of buildings divided by the land area. Ratios below 1.5 are low density. Ratios above five are very high density. Most exurbs are below two, while most city centres are well above five. Walk-up apartments with basement garages can easily achieve a density of three. Skyscrapers easily achieve densities of thirty or more. Problems can often occur at residential densities between about two and five. These densities can cause traffic jams for automobiles, yet are too low to be commercially served by trains or light rail systems.

4. The urban canyon effectis a colloquial, non-scientific term referring to street space bordered by very high buildings. This type of environment may shade the sidewalk level from direct sunlight during most daylight hours. While an often-decried phenomenon, it is rare except in very dense, hyper-tall urban environments, such as those found in Lower and Midtown Manhattan, Chicago's Loop and Kowloon in Hong Kong.

In urban planning, sound is usually measured as a source of pollution. Studies on urban sounds emphasize that sound aesthetics involves more than noise abatement and decibel measurements.

Light pollution has become a problem in urban residential areas because some lighting is so intrusive and causes conflict in the residential areas. Besides paradoxically intense improperly installed security lighting may pose a danger to the public, producing excessive glare. The development of the full cutoff fixture, properly installed, has reduced this problem considerably.

4. Are these statements true or false? If they are false, say why. Use the following phrases:

I can’t agree to this statement because…

Just the contrary…

I think…

To my mind…

1. Historically settlements were located in forests.

2. The notion of “inclusive design” anticipates criminal behaviour.

3. An urban environment can’t influence individuals’ obedience to social rules.

4. Transport problem is easily solved within urbanized areas.

5. Floor area ratio is used to measure density.

6. The urban canyon effect can be found in the streets with low buildings.

7. Sound can be measured as source of pollution.

5. Study the text and answer the following questions:

1. Where were first settlements located?

2. What threats must urban planners consider?

3. What regions can be made into parkland or green belt?

4. How do some city planners try to control criminality?

5. Why does transport present unique problem?

6. How can transport problems be solved within urbanized areas?

7. How is density measured?

8. What does the term “urban canyon effect” mean?

9. How can the problem of light pollution be reduced?

10. How can the problem of sound pollution be reduced?

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