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The psychological classification of semantic change

A necessary condition of any semantic change, no matter what its cause, is some condition between the old meaning and the new. There are two kinds of this connection: a) similarity of meaning, and b) contiguity of meaning.

Similarity of meaning, or metaphor, may be described as a semantic process of associating two things, one of which in some way resembles the other. Thus, a metaphor is a transfer of name based on the association of similarity; it is actually a hidden comparison. E.g., a woman may be called a peach, a lemon, a cat, a goose, a lioness, голубка, гусеня, киця, etc. Metaphors may be based upon very different types of similarity. E.g., the similarity of shape: the head of a cabbage, the teeth of a saw, мереживо березових віток, росинка радості; similarity of function or use: the Head of the school (of an army, of a procession, of a household), the key to a mystery, голова зборів, голова правління; similarity of position: foot of a mountain, foot of a page; similarity of duration of time and space: long distance – long speech, a short path – a short time. In the Ukrainian language there is a noun човник (diminutive form of човен). Later by the similarity of the exterior form the word човник started to be used for naming the part of the loom and further by the similarity of functions this word started to name the part of a sewing machine. Other examples: солодкий сон, хмара плаче, вітер віє, осінь жовтокоса, срібний голос, радіє земля, йде весна, тепла зустріч, м'який характер.

Contiguity of meaning, or metonymy, may be described as a semantic process of associating two things one of which makes part of the other or is closely connected with it. Thus, a metonymy is a transfer of name based on substituting the part for the whole. The transfer may be conditioned by different relations between the primary and secondary meaning, such as spatial, temporal, causal, symbolic, instrumental, functional and others. Spatial relations, e.g., are present when the name of the place is used for the people occupying it: the bar (the lawyers), the town (inhabitants), the House (the members of the House of Lords or Commons). Аудиторія, клас mean not only the premise, but also people. The meaning appears metonymical when the dishes are named in the meaning of the substance contained, e.g., з'їв миску борщу, розлив відро. The thing may be named after material it is made of, e.g., папір means “the material and the documents”. Instrumental relations are obvious when the instrument for the agent is used instead of the agent: the best pens of the day (the best modern writers), hand (handwriting). The functional relations between the primary and secondary meanings appear in the result of the functional transfer of the name from one subject to another, e.g., воротар first meant “the guardian of the gate” and later “the person who defended gates in football”.

The simplest case of metonymy is synecdocheby which we mean giving the part for the whole or vise versa, e.g., ABC (alphabet), man (humanity), the squirrel, the tiger (a whole for a part); Makintosh, Pulman, Sandwich (the name of the inventor for the thing invented).

There are other types of semantic change, besides metaphor and metonymy.

Hyperbole (from Gr. hyperbole “exceed”) is an exaggerated statement not meant to be understood literally but expressing emotional attitude of the speaker to what he is speaking about. E.g., I haven’t seen you for ages! It’s absolutely maddening. "He was so tall that I was not sure he had a face". (O.Henry)

The reverse figure is called litotes(from Gr. litos “plain”). It expresses a desire to conceal or suppress one’s feelings, and to seem indifferent and calm.

E.g., But this is frightful! – Certainly somewhat disturbing.

It is a good thing. – It's not a bad thing.

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